How education reproduces inequality — class, gender & ethnicity
Working-class pupils consistently achieve lower than middle-class pupils at every stage of education. Explanations fall into two broad categories: external factors (outside school) and internal factors (within school).
Bernstein (1971): Working-class children use restricted code (limited vocabulary, context-dependent) while schools use elaborated code (wider vocabulary, context-free). This disadvantages working-class pupils who don't have access to the language of education.
Sugarman (1970): Working-class subculture values: fatalism, collectivism, immediate gratification, present-time orientation — conflicting with education's emphasis on individual achievement and deferred gratification.
Criticism: Keddie calls cultural deprivation a "myth" — it blames working-class culture rather than the education system. Working-class culture is different, not deficient.
Lack of material resources: inadequate housing (no quiet study space, overcrowding), poor diet affecting concentration, inability to afford educational resources (books, computers, private tutoring), cost of school uniform and trips.
Smith & Noble (1995): "Poverty is the single biggest barrier to educational achievement." Free school meals eligibility correlates strongly with lower attainment.
Reay (2005): Middle-class parents can "buy" advantages — private tutors, school catchment areas (house prices near good schools), extra-curricular activities.
The education system rewards the cultural capital of the dominant class. Middle-class children arrive at school already equipped with the knowledge, language, values, and dispositions valued by the education system. This gives them an unfair advantage.
Three forms of capital: Economic (money), Cultural (knowledge, taste, qualifications), Social (networks, connections). Schools reproduce class inequality by treating dominant-class culture as inherently superior and rewarding it with qualifications.
Habitus: Internalised dispositions shaped by class background. Middle-class habitus includes confidence in educational settings, knowledge of "the game," and a sense of entitlement. Working-class habitus may include a sense of not belonging, leading to self-exclusion.
The education system mirrors the workplace to produce a docile, obedient workforce. Correspondences include: hierarchy (head → teacher → pupil = boss → manager → worker), extrinsic motivation (grades = wages), fragmentation of knowledge (subjects = division of labour), and acceptance of authority.
The hidden curriculum teaches obedience, punctuality, competition, and acceptance of hierarchy — qualities needed by capitalism. Education produces a compliant labour force, not critical thinkers.
The "myth of meritocracy" — education legitimises inequality by making people believe success is based on ability and effort, when actually it is determined by class background.
The "lads" formed a counter-school culture that rejected school values. They saw through the myth of meritocracy — knowing that working-class kids mostly get working-class jobs regardless of qualifications. Their resistance (messing around, having a "laff") prepared them for shop-floor culture. However, their resistance ironically reproduced their class position — by rejecting school, they ensured they ended up in manual work.
Girls now outperform boys at every level of education. The gender gap has reversed since the 1980s.
Feminism & changed aspirations: Sue Sharpe (1994 vs 1976) — girls' priorities shifted from "love, marriage, husbands" to "jobs, careers, independence."
Changes in the economy: Expansion of service sector = more opportunities for women. Education seen as route to financial independence.
Coursework & assessment: Girls tend to be more organised and conscientious — advantages in coursework-heavy subjects.
Teacher attention: Girls receive more positive attention; boys more negative (reprimands for behaviour).
Laddish culture: Peer pressure makes academic effort uncool for boys. "Effortless achievement" is valued. Being seen to try hard risks ridicule.
Feminisation of education: Decline of male role models in primary schools. Reading seen as "feminine." Sewell argues boys need structured, competitive learning.
Crisis of masculinity: Decline of traditional male manual jobs. Boys lack clear routes to traditional masculine identity through work.
Chinese and Indian pupils consistently achieve highest. White British and Black Caribbean pupils achieve below average (though patterns are complex and intersect with class and gender). Gillborn & Mirza (2000): Social class is the strongest predictor, but ethnicity adds an independent effect.
Internal factors: Institutional racism in schools, teacher labelling (Gillborn — teachers perceive Black pupils as threatening), ethnocentric curriculum. External factors: Material deprivation (ethnic minorities disproportionately in poverty), cultural factors (some communities place very high value on education).
Sewell: Challenges the "victim narrative" — argues some Black boys embrace a hyper-masculine street culture that conflicts with schooling. Controversial — accused of blaming the victims.
Three types of school based on 11+ exam: grammar (academic), secondary modern (practical), technical (vocational). Intended to be meritocratic but reproduced class divisions — middle-class children disproportionately passed the 11+.
Labour introduced non-selective secondary schools for all abilities. Aimed to reduce class inequality and promote social mixing. But: middle-class parents used catchment areas, and streaming within schools reproduced inequality.
National Curriculum, league tables, Ofsted inspections, open enrolment, LMS. Created a "market" in education — schools compete for pupils. Ball: this benefits middle-class "skilled choosers" who can navigate the system.
EMA (Education Maintenance Allowance), Sure Start, Academies programme, Aim Higher. Maintained marketisation but added compensatory measures for disadvantaged pupils. EMA later abolished by the Coalition.
Massive expansion of academies and free schools (outside LA control). Pupil Premium funding for disadvantaged pupils. EBacc performance measure. Policies reflect both marketisation and targeted intervention.