Socialisation, identity & cultural diversity — A-Level Sociology
Society is a system of interconnected parts (organic analogy). Culture creates value consensus — shared norms and values that hold society together (social solidarity). Socialisation and social control maintain order. Institutions (family, education, religion) each perform functions essential for society's survival.
Criticism: Ignores inequality and conflict. Assumes consensus exists — whose values? Over-deterministic — people are not cultural "dopes."
Culture serves the interests of the ruling class (bourgeoisie). Dominant ideology — ruling-class ideas are presented as universal through institutions (ISAs — Althusser). Hegemony (Gramsci) — ruling class maintains power through cultural domination, not just economic control. Working class experiences false consciousness.
Criticism: Overly deterministic and economistic. Not all culture is class-based. Ignores gender and ethnicity. Working class are not always passive.
Focuses on small-scale (micro) interactions. Culture is created and negotiated through everyday social interactions. Labelling theory — identity is shaped by how others define us. Dramaturgical approach (Goffman) — social life is like a performance; we manage impressions in "front stage" and "backstage" regions.
Criticism: Ignores structural constraints (class, gender, ethnicity). Difficult to generalise from small-scale studies. Neglects power and inequality.
Culture is patriarchal — it systematically favours men. Gender socialisation (Oakley) teaches boys and girls different norms and expectations. Walby identifies six structures of patriarchy. Intersectional feminists (hooks, Crenshaw) argue gender interacts with race and class — experiences of culture vary.
Criticism: Not all women share the same experiences. Over-emphasises gender at the expense of other factors. Significant progress has been made.
Agents of Socialisation
Socialisation is the process by which individuals learn the norms, values, and behaviours of their culture. It is lifelong but particularly influential in childhood.
Family (Primary Socialisation)
The most important agent in early life. Children learn language, basic norms, gender roles, and values through interaction with parents and siblings. Parsons: family is the "personality factory." Feminists argue family reproduces patriarchal gender norms (Oakley — canalisation, verbal appellations).
Education (Secondary Socialisation)
Schools teach the formal curriculum and the hidden curriculum — punctuality, obedience, competition. Durkheim: schools create social solidarity. Marxists: schools reproduce class inequality (Bowles & Gintis — correspondence principle).
Peer Groups
Friends and age-mates provide an equal-status environment for learning social skills. Peer pressure can enforce conformity or deviance. Increasingly influential in adolescence as young people seek identity independent of family.
Media
Traditional (TV, newspapers) and new media (social media, internet) transmit norms, values, and ideologies. Concerns include: media amplification of deviance (Cohen), cultivation of gender stereotypes, and the impact of social media on identity formation.
Religion
Provides moral codes, rituals, and community belonging. Functionalists see religion as promoting social cohesion. Marxists see it as "opium of the masses" — legitimating inequality. Feminists argue it reinforces patriarchy.
Workplace
Occupational socialisation — learning the norms, language, and hierarchy of a profession. Shapes adult identity significantly. Goffman: institutions (prisons, hospitals) "resocialise" individuals through total institutions.