Learning Approaches

Edexcel Specification

Behaviourist Approach

Behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment. Only observable behaviour should be studied (not mental processes). Two key mechanisms: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Learning through association. A neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) until the NS alone produces a conditioned response (CR).

Example: Pavlov's dogs — bell (NS) + food (UCS) → salivation (UCR). After pairing: bell alone (CS) → salivation (CR).

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Learning through consequences. Behaviour is shaped by reinforcement (increases behaviour) and punishment (decreases behaviour).

Positive reinforcement: Adding something pleasant (reward).
Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant.
Punishment: Adding something unpleasant or removing something pleasant.

Watson & Rayner (1920) — Little Albert

Classical Conditioning of Fear

9-month-old Albert was shown a white rat (NS). Each time he reached for it, a loud noise (UCS) was made behind him, causing fear (UCR). After repeated pairings, Albert showed fear (CR) of the rat alone (CS). Fear generalised to similar stimuli (rabbit, fur coat, Santa mask).

+ Scientific — uses controlled experiments, objective measurement. Replicable findings.

+ Practical applications — token economies, systematic desensitisation, behaviour modification.

− Deterministic — ignores free will. Humans aren't passive responders to stimuli.

− Reductionist — oversimplifies human behaviour by ignoring cognitive and biological factors.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of role models. Bridges behaviourism and cognitive psychology by including mental (mediational) processes.

Mediational Processes

Attention: Noticing the model's behaviour.
Retention: Remembering the behaviour.
Reproduction: Being able to perform the behaviour.
Motivation: Having a reason to imitate (vicarious reinforcement).

Key Concepts

Vicarious reinforcement: Observing others being rewarded makes imitation more likely.
Identification: We're more likely to imitate models we identify with (same gender, status, attractiveness).
Self-efficacy: Confidence in our ability to perform the behaviour.

Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) — Bobo Doll

Observational Learning of Aggression

Children watched an adult model behave aggressively (or not) towards a Bobo doll. Children who observed the aggressive model were significantly more aggressive in play. Boys were more physically aggressive overall. Children were more likely to imitate a same-sex model.

+ Accounts for cultural and individual differences in behaviour.

+ Less deterministic than behaviourism — includes cognitive mediational processes.

− Bobo doll study has low ecological validity — a doll is designed to be hit. May not generalise to real aggression.

− Underestimates biological factors (hormones, genetics) in behaviour.

Cognitive Approach

Focuses on internal mental processes: perception, attention, memory, thinking, language. Uses the computer analogy — the mind is an information processor with input, processing, storage, and output.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that help us organise and interpret information. They develop through experience. Can lead to biased or distorted processing (e.g., stereotypes are schemas about social groups).

Computer Analogy

Input (senses) → Processing (perception, attention, thinking) → Output (behaviour). Useful but limited — ignores emotion, motivation, and the influence of biology.

+ Scientific — uses lab experiments with high control. Objectively measurable variables.

+ Applied to therapy (CBT) — highly effective for depression and anxiety. Practical value.

− Machine reductionism — comparing mind to computer ignores emotion and consciousness.

− Lacks ecological validity — lab-based memory/attention tasks don't reflect real-world cognition.

Biological Approach

Behaviour is determined by biological factors: genetics, brain structure, neurochemistry, and evolution. Everything psychological is first biological.

Genetics & Behaviour

Twin studies compare MZ (identical) and DZ (fraternal) twins. Higher concordance rates in MZ twins suggest a genetic component. E.g., schizophrenia: MZ concordance ~48%, DZ ~17%.

Neurochemistry

Neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline) affect mood and behaviour. Low serotonin linked to depression. Excess dopamine linked to schizophrenia. Basis for drug treatments (SSRIs, antipsychotics).

+ Scientific — uses objective, measurable techniques (brain scans, genetic analysis).

+ Real-world applications — drug treatments for mental illness based on neurochemistry.

− Biological determinism — implies behaviour is determined by biology, ignoring free will and environment.

− Nature-nurture issue — overemphasises nature. Concordance rates are never 100%, showing environment matters too.

Approaches Compared

Feature	Behaviourist	SLT	Cognitive	Biological
Focus	Observable behaviour	Observation & imitation	Mental processes	Biology (genes, brain)
Nature/Nurture	Nurture	Nurture (+ some nature)	Both	Nature
Determinism	Hard determinism	Soft (reciprocal)	Soft determinism	Hard determinism
Scientific?	Very — lab experiments	Moderately	Yes — controlled experiments	Very — brain scans, genetics
Key study	Pavlov, Skinner	Bandura (Bobo doll)	Memory models	Twin studies
Therapy	Systematic desensitisation	Modelling	CBT	Drug therapy

Edexcel exam tip: For 8+ mark "compare" questions, use a consistent structure: for each point, state what Approach A says, contrast with Approach B, then evaluate which is more supported or useful. Don't just describe — actively compare throughout.